Critical Self-Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical Self-Reflection - Essay Example Critical thinking has helped me accept both unpleasant and pleasant events in my life with such grace and positive attitude. Whenever I was faced with a setback in life, I viewed my situation from different perspectives in order to explore all views and understand just how crucial the situation actually was. I believe that critical thinking is a skill that anyone could benefit from in his or her daily lives. Every day we are faced with decisions and choices. Without critical thinking, how would it be possible to make the right choice? Critical thinking is a skill we use or ought to use in almost every aspect of our lives without even realizing it. College has given me many opportunities to use critical thinking in many new ways, or in ways, I had never before. For example, in our interpersonal communication class we get to share a lot on our relationships and family. I did not only share my story on life with others, but got to listen and reflect on their stories. This helped in giving me a new perspective on life. We should not always be confined to our own ways and imagine that we are always right. Secondly, on numerous occasions in math class, we are given a word problem to solve. In order for one to find a solution, you are expected to figure out the best system in which to solve the question. I doubt this would be possible for me without critical thinking. It takes patience for one to critically analyze a maths problem and come up with a solution (Cottrell, 2011). In addition, in college, no one does the scheduling for you anymore. The choice is left to you. This poses the challenge of ensuring that you use the time you have as well as possible. Otherwise, a whole semester would go by so fast, and before you realize it there is so much that you still have not done. In addition, you are likely not prepared for exams by the time the end of the semester is here. With my critical thinking skills, I am able to manage and organize myself

Literary analysis of Cathedral Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Literary analysis of Cathedral - Essay Example Furthermore, the close relationship between his wife and the blind man that existed through the years provided additional ire and ill feelings. The transcending climax in the plot revealed how Robert, despite his blindness, was able to actually open the mind and constricted perspectives of the narrator through a unique experience of the cathedral. The characters of the story are the narrator, as the protagonist, whose instrumental point of view revealed details of the plot. As the narrator, he is considered a round character, where his personal views and feelings towards other characters are relevant in the development of the story. He foretold the experience of his wife, unnamed, yet instrumental in inviting Robert to their home. The wife is a flat character, through described in more details, as necessary to advance the events that are about to unfold. The blind man, Robert, is initially seen as the antagonist, providing conflict to the narrator due to the impending visit that he o penly disliked. The story told in a straightforward style, manifests diverse symbolism in terms of the cathedral, itself, as a manifestation of strong and steadfast faith as giving immense ability to transform a nonbeliever into a brand new person with optimistic perspectives. Through the cathedral as the impetus for discussion between Robert and the narrator, an eye-opening transformation for the narrator ensued.

Impact of the Internet on Live Music

Impact of the Internet on Live Music Antà ©a H. E. L. GEORGHIOU   The Internet has killed live music and caused financial problems for musicians. Discuss. Society is confronted to a fast changing technological environment, especially with the Internet. Some claim that live music is on the decline, and that music industry and musicians suffer from financial problems. We will be discussing the negative, but also the positive aspects that has the Internet on live music and on the music industry. Firstly, it is a known fact that in comparison to the past, CDs sales are declining, and this is mostly due to the apparition of new media and to illegal music streaming and downloads online.[1] Despite this, online content also has advantages: many consumers, especially the younger population, use the Internet as a way to discover new music, although it is mostly done illegally. This discovery can be turned into revenue with legal streaming services. [2] The younger generation does not go in shops to find music anymore; the Internet is a more practical way to discover new artists, while staying at home. Services, such as Spotify, have been made available to stream music legally: free versions are run thanks to advertisements, and consumers can pay to not have them.[3] Consumers tend to download music in order to sample it, and if they like it, they may purchase it,[4] and maybe even go to concerts later on. This is also positive for live music; it is an effective advertisement in a way. Some debates were recently going on about Periscope, a mobile application that allows you to watch people live-streaming all over the world. It is said to have a negative impact on live music since people were live-streaming concerts for example. On the one hand, it is true, for people watching the performances are not paying, and people are streaming it without owning the rights to do so.[5] On the other hand, it can be a good way to make other people discover an artist, especially since it is available to see worldwide, including places where there may not be concert opportunities. From a financial point of view, illegal resources online do impact the industry and artists. However, new ways are found to improve these issues as much as possible. A successful example is Japan: in order for their disc industry to keep on selling, they developed an effective strategy; albums and singles come with unique features, special songs or additional content and bonuses. This strategy is working well because fans are ready to pay to get this additional content from their favourite artists.[6] The music industry in all its aspects has changed over the past years due to the Internet and the digitization of music. Nowadays, consumers want free access to music. It became an expectation and piracy is considered normal. Subscription models are now more and more used, allowing the consumers to pay in order to access a music library.[7] Streaming services ensure revenue to artists, labels, etc. Artists themselves can also release free songs through these in exchange of consumers loyalty. These services also prove to be useful for the evaluation of trends and popularity of songs. The Internet also offers opportunities for artists that other media dont provide. Artists can now interact with their fans on social media a lot of them do so -, and make their own advertisement directly to their fanbase. To conclude, despite having made illegal copying and downloading much easier, new technologies also offer new opportunities for the music industry. References Andersen, B. and Frenz, M. (2010). Dont blame the P2P file-sharers: the impact of free music downloads on the purchase of music CDs in Canada. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 20(5). Fox, M. (2004). E-commerce Business Models for the Music Industry. Popular Music and Society, 27(2). Gopal, R., Bhattacharjee, S. and Sanders, G. (2006). Do Artists Benefit from Online Music Sharing?. The Journal of Business, 79(3). Miller, K. (2017). Japan overwhelmingly favors CDs to digital music. [online] Japan Today. Available at: https://www.japantoday.com/category/entertainment/view/japan-overwhelmingly-favors-cds-to-digital-music. Miller, K. (2017). Japan overwhelmingly favors CDs to digital music. [online] Japan Today. Available at: https://www.japantoday.com/category/entertainment/view/japan-overwhelmingly-favors-cds-to-digital-music. Peitz, M. and Waelbroeck, P. (2004). The Effect of Internet Piracy on CD Sales: Cross-Section Evidence. CESifo Working Paper Series, (1122). Pfanner, E. (2017). Music Industry Lures Casual Pirates to Legal Sites. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/technology/internet/20stream.html?emc=eta1pagewanted=al. Sciencedirect.com. (2017). Is the music industry stuck between rock and a hard place? The role of the Internet and three possible scenarios. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969698910001256. The Guardian. (2017). Meerkat and Periscope are fun apps but beware the sting in the tail. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/2015/mar/31/meerkat-periscope-live-streaming-copyright-brands. Us Weekly. (2017). Adele Calls Out Fan for Filming Her Concert: Enjoy It in Real Life!. [online] Available at: http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/adele-calls-out-fan-for-filming-her-concert-enjoy-it-in-real-life-w208223. [1] Peitz, M. and Waelbroeck, P. (2004). The Effect of Internet Piracy on CD Sales: Cross-Section Evidence. CESifo Working Paper Series, (1122). [2] Andersen, B. and Frenz, M. (2010). Dont blame the P2P file-sharers: the impact of free music downloads on the purchase of music CDs in Canada. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 20(5), pp.715-740. [3] Pfanner, E. (2017). Music Industry Lures Casual Pirates to Legal Sites. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/technology/internet/20stream.html?emc=eta1pagewanted=al [Accessed 25 Mar. 2017]. [4] Gopal, R., Bhattacharjee, S. and Sanders, G. (2006). Do Artists Benefit from Online Music Sharing?. The Journal of Business, 79(3), pp.1503-1533. [5] The Guardian. (2017). Meerkat and Periscope are fun apps but beware the sting in the tail. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/2015/mar/31/meerkat-periscope-live-streaming-copyright-brands [Accessed 25 Mar. 2017]. [6] Miller, K. (2017). Japan overwhelmingly favors CDs to digital music. [online] Japan Today. Available at: https://www.japantoday.com/category/entertainment/view/japan-overwhelmingly-favors-cds-to-digital-music [Accessed 25 Mar. 2017]. [7] Fox, M. (2004). E-commerce Business Models for the Music Industry. Popular Music and Society, 27(2), pp.201-220.

My Family Heritage Essay -- Personal Narrative Relationships Papers

My Family Heritage Family Defined The word family has changed so much in the past century. A family back in the 1950’s was probably considered a husband, wife, and one or more children. Times have changed and families have become much different. The Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others book defines family as a, â€Å"Unit made up of any number of persons who live in relationship with one another over time in a common living space who are usually, but not always, united by marriage and kinship† (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond, 243). Families can be broken up into five different types. The first is the traditional family, which includes a mother, father, and their biological children. Next, is the blended family which includes two adults and children, but because of divorce they may have children of other parents. Unfortunately, single-parent families are being seen more often. Extended families include parents, children, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and any other close relatives. The extended families are commonly found in Asian and Hispanic cultures. The last category is the dual income parents without any kids. They are known as â€Å"dinks†. Families in the United States are very special because of the â€Å"melting pot† that took place in our country’s early history. Thousands of immigrants from other countries came to the United States bringing with them their culture and family traditions. Finding out our family history and becoming aware of the stories behind our names, culture, and traditions can be a very interesting and fun experience. The assignment of our paper was to talk to our parents and other relatives to discover our family history. Mother’s side My mother’s maiden name is Patricia ... ...s and stories. I heard stories of my parents dating and how they got together. I heard the funny stories about how my parents got engaged and married. I even learned I urinated on the doctor when I was born! The neat thing about my birth is my mom woke up at 4 in the morning when she was pregnant with me. The hospital in Austin is a 30 minute drive. I was born at 5 in the morning so I was a quick baby my mother said. This was time consuming assignment because of the large amount of communication required for all of the research. The value of the information gathered is priceless because I can now pass on all of the family stories and traditions to my kids someday. I have heard some of the stories before, but I always learn new information every time my parents talk about our family history. I will continue to keep the family tree growing in my family.

Education in modern world Essay

Education is an important tool that is applied in the contemporary world to succeed, as it mitigates the challenges which are faced in life. The knowledge gained through education enables individuals’ potential to be optimally utilized owing to training of the human mind. This opens doors of opportunities enables individual to achieve better prospects in career growth. Education has played a paramount role in the modern industrial world. This is attributed to the fact prospective employees must be qualified adequately to perform various tasks effectively. Industries entail resources that are sufficiently equipped with the modern technology to suit the needs and wants of the society. This thus, makes education to become a norm for services in all industrial sectors. The primary skills and the ability to apply the skills is the basis for evaluating the market. The foundation of the society is based on education since it brings economic and social prosperity. Gaining education enhances an individual to live a respectful life in the society. This is because education offers a setting in which culture and values of a society are developed. In this respect, education in modern society provides a forum where the society examines its issues and identifies solutions. The advancement of a society both economically and socially is by gaining education which consequently enables them to run a modern society. Career wise, education is the foundation of developing individuals by providing knowledge regarding humanity the worldover. Individuals in the society acquire new approaches in life that build opinions on the economical and social life. Education enables the society to interpret the world around them rightly, innovating to new ways and means that conform to their environment. The current advancement in technology has been enhanced largely by education, as individuals are able to apply the skills acquired in real life leading to innovations. Employment in the contemporary world is based on education, as employees must possess the required skills that correspond with the current  technology to perform their tasks. Prospective employees must be equipped with skill for them to cope with ever advancing technology in all industrial and agricultural sectors. Therefore, education has become a basic principle to measure the labor market on the basis of essential skills and the ability to appropriate them through suitable communication. Education has played a major role in the modern life to all individuals in the society. It has enabled societies to prosper both socially and economically by enabling them to develop common culture and values. It is through education that Technological advancement has been realized enabling communication and production of cost effective products and services to the society at large.

4th Gospel Revision Notes

Ethics EITHER 3 (a) (i) Examine the key ideas of one critique of the link between religion and morality. (18) (ii) To what extent does this critique effectively undermine the link between religion and morality? (12) (Total for Question 3(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Analyse the important features of either Deontology or Natural Moral Law. (18) (ii) To what extent is the selected theory persuasive? (12) (Total for Question 3(b) = 30 marks) EITHER 4 (a) (i) Examine the important concepts relating to justice and law and punishment. (18) (ii) Consider critically the extent to which subjectivism poses problems for these concepts. 12) (Total for Question 4(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Analyse the contribution made by emotivism to debates about ethical language. (18) (ii) To what extent do the problems of ethical language remain unsolved? (12) (Total for Question 4(b) = 30 marks) New Testament EITHER 17 (a) (i) Examine the religious significance of either the teachings of Jesus concerning the Kin gdom of God (Luke’s Gospel) or the teaching of the Prologue (Fourth Gospel). (18) (ii) To what extent are these teachings important for an understanding of the gospel? (12) (Total for Question 17(a) = 30 marks)OR (b) (i) ‘The gospel was written to reveal the nature of Jesus as the Christ. ’ Examine this claim regarding the purpose of either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel. (18) (ii) To what extent may other purposes for the gospel be equally important? (12) (Total for Question 17(b) = 30 marks) EITHER 18 (a) (i) With reference to either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel, examine the reasons why the religious and political authorities put Jesus to death. (18) (ii) To what extent was Pilate responsible for the death of Jesus? (12) (Total for Question 18(a) = 30 marks) OR b) (i) Examine the significance of the religious symbolism contained within the crucifixion narrative of either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel. (18) (ii) To what extent does the resurrection narrative add to an understanding of the rest of the gospel? (12) (Total for Question 18(b) = 30 marks) Ethics EITHER 3 (a) (i) Analyse the important features of either Deontology or Virtue Ethics. (18) (ii) Consider critically how effective the selected theory may be as a guideline for moral living. (12) (Total for Question 3(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Examine the key ideas of Natural Moral Law. 18) (ii) To what extent do critiques of the link between religion and morality undermine the value of Natural Moral Law? (12) (Total for Question 3(b) = 30 marks) EITHER 4 (a) (i) Examine key ideas associated with either justice or law and punishment. (18) (ii) Evaluate the view that objectivity and relativism pose problems for the concept selected in part (i). (12) (Total for Question 4(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Examine the problems which scholars have identified regarding the use and meaning of ethical language. (18) (ii) To what extent may these problems be solved? 12) (Total for Question 4(b) = 30 marks) New Testament EITHER 17 (a) (i) Either examine the important features of Luke’s presentation of Jesus’ teaching on the Kingdom of God or examine the key ideas of the Prologue (Fourth Gospel). (18) (ii) Evaluate the claim that this teaching/these ideas are crucial to the meaning of the gospel. (12) (Total for Question 17(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) ‘A careful reading of the gospel reveals the purpose the author had for writing it. ’ Examine this claim with reference to either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel. 18) (ii) Evaluate the view that knowing the purpose of the gospel does not add to our understanding of its meaning. (12) (Total for Question 17(b) = 30 marks) EITHER 18 (a) (i) ‘It was the religious officials who were responsible for Jesus’ death; the political authorities had nothing to do with it. ’ Examine this claim with reference to either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel . (18) (ii) Evaluate the view that conflict was crucial to the ministry of Jesus. (12) (Total for Question 18(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Analyse three examples of religious symbolism in the crucifixion narrative of either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel. 18) (ii) Evaluate the claim that the resurrection adds little to our understanding of the ministry of Jesus. (12) (Total for Question 18(b) = 30 marks) Ethics EITHER 3 (a) (i) Examine the important concepts of two critiques of the link between religion and morality (18) (ii) To what extent do these critiques succeed in weakening the link between religion and morality? (12) (Total for Question 3(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Analyse the key features of either Natural Moral Law or Virtue Ethics. (18) (ii) Evaluate the extent to which the selected theory can withstand criticism. (12) (Total for Question 3(b) = 30 marks)EITHER 4 (a) (i) Examine central ideas relating to justice and law and punishment. (18) (ii) To what extent does objectivity pose challenges for imposing punishment? (12) (Total for Question 4(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) Analyse two problems raised by the use and meaning of ethical language. (18) (ii) Evaluate the view that these problems cannot be solved. (12) (Total for Question 4(b) = 30 marks) New Testament EITHER 17 (a) (i) Examine the key religious concepts of either the teachings of Jesus concerning the Kingdom of God (Luke’s Gospel) or the teaching of the Prologue (Fourth Gospel). 18) (ii) Evaluate the claim that these teachings lay down the primary themes of the gospel. (12) (Total for Question 17(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) ‘The Gospel was written to make clear the identity of Jesus. ’ Examine this claim regarding the purpose of either Luke’s Gospel or the Fourth Gospel. (18) (ii) Evaluate the claim that there are also other important purposes for the gospel. (12) (Total for Question 17(b) = 30 marks) EITHER 18 (a) (i) With reference to either Luke’s Gos pel or the Fourth Gospel, examine the [pic][? ] |&'(*,. /@AGJKY[^_pqrs†¹ Zâ€Å" ¤?  ¬iaiaiaiaiaiOAa ·a ·?  ·aâ„ ¢? A†¦? {†¦A{A{A{†¦g†¦? u†°OJ[? ]QJ[? ]U[pic]^J[? ]mHnHu[pic]h? †ºOJ[? ]QJ[? ]contribution of both the religious and political authorities to the death of Jesus. (18) (ii) Consider critically the claim that it was Pilate who was responsible for the death of Jesus, not the Jewish leaders. (12) (Total for Question 18(a) = 30 marks) OR (b) (i) ‘The religious symbolism of the crucifixion narrative is vital to understanding the whole gospel. ’ Examine the meaning of this claim. (18) (ii) To what extent does the resurrection narrative enhance that understanding? (12) (Total for Question 18(b) = 30 marks)

The Bourgeoisie and Proletariet essays

The Bourgeoisie and Proletariet essays The bourgeoisie and proletariet have both similarities and differences in their emergence and development as a class. They both emerged out of a separate society and developed their own. The bourgeoisie grew out of the feudal society and the need to develop a modern industry. The proletarians grew out of the bourgeoisie society and their need for change and stability. They both need to have centralized power in order for each society to grow. The bourgeoisie has centralized their means of production and has concentrated property in a few hands (p. 13). The proletariet has formed trade unions in order to gain more power. Both these initiatives have formed political parties. The differences among these two classes are great. The bourgeoisie people are always in need for growth and change. They are constantly revolutionizing their means of production (p.12). They are an independent society. With their development of a modern industry they have brought many different societies through out the nation to depend on them (p. 13). The proletarians are on the other hand very dependent on the bourgeoisie for survival. Without them they could not exist. The proletarian grew out of the bourgeoisie's exploitation of the working laborer. Without the constant development of modern industry the proletarian would not be able to work and their plight would be no more. With the development of modern industry the proletarian not only increases in number, it becomes concentrated in greater masses; it's strength grows (p. 17). The proletarians own no property while the bourgeoisie own industries (p. 20). All these struggles described in the Communist Manifesto are still going on today. The modern bourgeoisie are the Microsoft corporations of the world. The proletarians are the the working class unions. Not much has changed from 1848 till now. ...

Short Essay on Katherine Porters Pale Horse, Pale Rider

Short Essay on Katherine Porters Pale Horse, Pale Rider I chose to write a short essay on Katherine Porters' story "Pale Horse, Pale Rider". Upon researching for any literary criticism or reviews on this short story I realized it was going to be much harder than originally anticipated. After four hours of searching the web and not wanting to pay money for papers on the subject matter I was looking for, or pay for any historical book reviews, I finally settled on a criticism on Pale Horse, Pale Rider on Amazon.com. In summary the review cited her work and analyzed her writing and how it made him feel after reading the short story. He stated that the book certainly deserved more than five stars than the rating page allowed, which was the maximum for any book. He cited Katherine Porter's novel as of one of the finest American novels of all time. Mitchell went on to state that before nonfiction books about dying and coming back to life became popular, Katherine Anne Porter wrote this brilliant story about life and death during the influenza e pidemic near the end of World War I.MITCHELL FREIHe stated that unlike any other book he had read, she successfully captured the perspective of the beauty of death eclipsing the beauty of life. He went on to further describe the theme which is to explain how our perspective shifts back towards favoring life, as the memory of death retreats. He stated that Porter's novel had a broader meaning, one which inevitable death ends each of our lives, but, what life means in this context. One of the fascinating plot complications Mitchell stated that she used in the book was to show how "duty" to life usually means increasing the likelihood of death. As a result he stated that , each of...

Born free generation

?It is not for nothing that the born free youth in 2013 has been named the â€Å"me generation†. Today’s people growing up are materialistic, self indulged and obsessed with themselves. This essay will explore that 19 years after the first the first democratic elections in South Africa, the young people of today are little different from their counterparts else where in the world. My argument will show that this is somewhat ironic because politically inspired school pupils were the catalysts for one of the most important resistances against the apartheid government. In 1976 the National Party attempted to modify the education act and insist that Afrikaans be the medium of instruction for Bantu education. On the 16th of June politicised and angry young teenagers poured into the streets of Soweto equipped with suitcases and stones. They confronted heavily armed policemen and the might of the South African military with the determination to express their outrage at yet another political injustice. Hector Peterson lost his life on this day and his limp body became emblematic of a politicised youth determined to make South Africa a democratic country. When President’s Kennedy, Nixon and Johnson involved the United States of America in a war across the globe, to minimise the influence of communism, young people in America took to the streets and protested vigorously across the land. Indeed, this event characterised popular culture to such an extent that protest music became a genre popular worldwide. Singers such as Bob Dylan, Joan Baez and Peter, Paul and Mary voiced the objections of the â€Å"Love Generation†. Music in fact became the medium for political resistance in South Africa as well; Johnny Klegg became the â€Å"white Zulu† and his anthropologist wrote resistance songs, which young people in South Africa promoted with much vigour and enthusiasm. Stephanie Powers too became a voice of political decent and her raspy voice with songs like â€Å"Last night when we were young† energised disco techs in which young South African’s danced the night away. However, 19 years after the demise of Apartheid, young South Africans are no longer interested in political and social protest music, in fact the pop genre has never enjoyed such wide spirit support in this country. Justin Bieber’s concert in Cape Town and Gauteng enjoyed unprecedented popularity and support. The columnist for the Sunday times exclaimed on the 14th of may that the hysterical behaviour of so many young girls was reason for great concern in fact anyone attending this concert could not have failed to be struck by one of the great ironies of one of the great â€Å"Musical bonanza† in Soweto, a bowl of poverty and deprivation. In fact, a sensitive appreciation of these ironies can be little other then down right embarrassing. However, if this were limited to one outing only, young people’s self indulgence and narcissism might be forgiven however, Johannesburg Stadium has been the host to Lady Gaga, The Red Hot Chilli Pepper and U2, in each case promoters smile at ticket sales and the amount of money made from each outing. Furthermore, it would be a little naive to believe that this is a characteristic only displayed by the youth of South Africa. Young people worldwide it would appear are pleasure seeking and selfish and are all too willing to emulate and worship celebrity culture. Charlotte Metcalfe in her article, â€Å"Where are all the role models, the real heroines we once revered† satirises adolescent hero worship of figures such as Cheryl Cole

Whistleblowing policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Whistleblowing policy - Essay Example In both public and private organizations, incidents of unethical and unprofessional conduct by the employees are common occurrences. The actions of such employees can take different forms, including sabotage, misappropriation of funds, espionage among other deeds against the professional ethics and conduct of an organization (PwC, 2011). The effects of such actions in an organization can be severe to both the company as well as the public, depending on the magnitude of the action. However, Boyle (1990) noted that any action that goes against the code of ethics of a particular organization, regardless of how small causes irreparable damage, which could herald greater economic and public image of the company. Adler and Daniels (1992) defined whistleblowing as â€Å"the public interest disclosure whereby a fellow worker reports a concern about the misconduct or omissions of the fellow colleague(s) and or employers that may cause danger to other people or the organization.† Most a ctions of misconduct involve theft and compromising on the safety of fellow workers and the public. The importance of whistleblowing in an organization cannot be overemphasized especially in the current competitive world market, which exposes organization to insecurity in order to undermine the competitive edge in business. In this regard, many corporations are increasingly formulating whistleblowing policies as a measure of preempting such attacks. Voluntarily instigated whistle blowing policy is one of such measures and according to Lewis (2001), the disclosure should be made in good faith, meaning that the confession should made out of real concern about a wrong action. In this regard, making maliciously motivated disclosures based on false accusations does not amount to whistle blowing. For whistleblowing to perform in the best interests of the company, Lewis (2001) notes that the whistleblower should have reasonable conviction that the information in his or her knowledge is sig nificantly correct even if it could turn to be untrue later. Raising grievances or complaining does not amount to whistle blowing because such talk in an organization is usually personalized, where employees could complain of being mistreated or sabotaged. In this case, a whistle blower should not be a person who has direct personal interests on the result of any given exploration or investigation to their concerns that they might have raised. A whistleblower should raise real concerns so that other in authority can address the problem (Jesse, 2010). Organizations have different areas of concern and they include but not limited to the incidents where an employee defrauds the organization, physical or emotional abuse of patients such as the elderly and vulnerable groups in medical setting. Moreover, faulty machines or equipment that expose operators and clients to risk in addition to situations where employees are bribed to award grants tenders and other approved monetary transaction s in an organization(Jesse, 2010). Whistleblowing could serve in an organization’s interest by enhancing better risk management practices (Adler and Daniels, 1992). However, employees should be empowered so that they can have enough confidence to report matters of concern without suffering from any form of physical, psychological and financial consequence. It is important for organizations to have effective risk management practices to prevent incidents of costly litigations, higher insurance premiums, damaged reputation of the organization in addition to loss of lives, jobs and even being subjected to stringent investigations (Adler and Daniels, 1992). In this regard, instigated voluntary whistle blowing can help in triggering early warning systems for employers. This could enable organizations to enforce effective policies that provide clear framework for taking action against culpable employees and employers. If employees voluntarily voice their concerns in an organization without being forced to approach an external authority, employers would often have the

Super Size Me Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Super Size Me - Essay Example Reality started checking in on the day my father read that article. The facts were astounding, the report detailed that 35.7 percent of adults and 16.9 percent of children aged 2-19 were obese. Further, the report talked of obesity risk factors, the condition’s link to diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, gallbladder disease and cancer. The information presented awakened my interest in obesity and I have learnt to appreciate every form of knowledge that would help in addressing the growing epidemic. Therefore, when I looked at the assignment â€Å"Super Size Me† the whole experience replayed in my mind and I felt grateful for another opportunity to learn something extra on obesity. Super Sizes Me is an American documentary film produced and starred by Morgan Spurlock. Morgan Spurlock is an American, independent film maker whose prominence came from this film. The film documentary which was released in 2004 runs for 98 minutes, it details a drastic lifestyle change to depict the eating habits adopted by most Americans. The star, Morgan Spurlock, takes the viewer through a 30 day period, from February 1 to March 2, 2003, a period in which he engages in unhealthy eating habits at a famous fast food outlet, the McDonalds. McDonalds epitomizes Americans culture of fast foods, it has for long been associated with food that has high fat content. Habitual eaters from the chain and others offering similar menus report higher weights and are most likely to suffer from obesity. This is a general thought, in the film Spurlock undertakes to experiment by taking three meals from the outlet and test the truth behind such an observation. Throughout the thirty days, Spurlock turned up for breakfast, lunch and dinner and consumed every item on the chain’s menu. Prior to the experiment, Spurlock maintains an absolutely healthy life and his diet is closely monitored by Alexandra, a vegan chef. Besides the diet, Spurlock keeps to his trainer’s

Livia 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Livia 2 - Essay Example This is evident since they do not disclose earnings form deposits although they account for around a third of bank’s total revenues. Although these bank charges may seem little, they are quite substantial considering the thousands or even millions of deposits that banks receive periodically. Banks however defend they action to levy deposits. They argue that deposits cost money to handle. These costs arise as a result of time and encumbrance to teller as a result of counting cash and also cost of transferring these funds. They also pay some fee to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. for holding large cash amount. However, this may be more rational if they only charged deposits that are in millions. It seems quite absurd to reason out that a bank like chase bank needs 40 cents to handle every $1,000 deposited exceeding an initial deposit od 7500. According to the author, Banks should not charge levies for receiving cash. They are only seeking more profits. According to my view, banks should not charge for deposits at all. This is because deposits are part of their sources for economics surpluses. Without deposits, banks would not be enjoying benefits on credit creation (Strahan, P.E. & Weston, J.P. pg. 835). Credit creation is the process by which banks loan out credit given to an individual over and over again (Saunders, A. pg. 89). This is because borrowers do not always withdraw the entire loaned amount or redeposit it back to their accounts for safety measures. Banks take advantage of this idle cash balances and loan it again although they maintain a reserve ratio just in case a customer need this amount. When this is done repeatedly, banks make extra earnings depending on a factor known as a credit creation multiplier. A second reason why banks should not charge deposits is simply to encourage deposit inflows (Rhoades, A. pg. 280). Deposits are sources of fund that are directly loaned out even

Threat of Religion-Based Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Threat of Religion-Based Terrorism - Essay Example Threat of religion-based terrorism is more rife currently than ever before as evidenced by a couple of things especially extremist groups. For instance, the last five years a number of religious groups have emerged where terror activities have been carried out. Surprisingly, these groups justify their actions on their religious ideologies. One example entails the Islamic State, which is the latest group, which claims that killing those of other religions will see the followers rewarded in the after-life. Ironically, the main leaders of these groups seldom engage in these activities; instead, their followers who are brainwashed. Terror activities are synonymous in these groups where unimaginable acts of human rights abuse are carried in the most heinous way. For instance, the aforementioned group has been responsible for a number of deaths with three Americans, two Britons, one Jordanian, and two Japanese among the number (Musarrat & Khan, 2014). In order to bolster its activities in as many regions as possible, this extremist group engages in radicalization. Here, people from many regions are enticed in to joining these activities using propaganda and sympathy. A case in point is the IS tendency to portray the West as inhuman. Additionally, the Africans have not been without a problem of their own concerning the same issue. First, the Al-Shabaab has terrorized many of the Somali nationals in the name of religion. Similarly, the Nigeria’s Boko Haram has proved to be a challenge to the government, and a number of people have lost their lives. Using the same tactics as the IS, the Nigerian group maims and carries out other heinous activities, and justify itself through religious ideologies (Musarrat & Khan, 2014). The activities may seem new to the current generation, but history shows that there have been similar cases where religion was a catalyst to terrorism. For instance, Father Charles Coughlin was

Colonization in Pakistan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Colonization in Pakistan - Essay Example British colonizers got access to the country during the reign of Sikh rulers. However, in 1857, Sepoy Mutiny, an Indian Rebellion, initiated a struggle against the British colonizers. Also Indian National Congress spearheaded several non-violent freedom struggles in early 1900s against the British. Britain could not resist the opposing powers and it ended its rule in Pakistan in 1947. Modern state of the country was, therefore, established on August 14, 1947. The country was then partitioned into five provinces: East Bengal, Balochistan, West Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Sindh. The partitioning process, however, led to riots across Pakistan and India (Lieven, 2012). War in Pakistan Pakistan has had four major wars since independence. The first war was the Kashmir war in 1947. The war was triggered when the country gained control of Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. The war involved Pakistan and the neighboring India. The two countries were later involved in war in 1965 and in 1971. The latest war was the Kargil war, which occurred in 1999. Pakistan has also had several skirmishes with its northern border country, Afganistan. Famine in Pakistan Famine in Pakistan is attributed to unevenly distributed rainfall patterns. Famines in the country have caused various devastating effects. Apart from leaving large expanse land derelict, famine in the country also triggered bushfires in various locations. Dereliction processes have not only created food shortages, but have also resulted to death of humans and animals because of hunger. Famines in Pakistan are, therefore, considered as an economic crisis because many resources are spent in mitigating them. Relations with African Countries Pakistan has strong relationships with countries in both Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa. The relationships are evident in the Pakistan embassies in African countries. Also, business relationships between Pakistan and African countries exist. Religion is another area where Pakistan and Arab-related African countries intermingle. In Tunisia, Pakistan supported the country in taking full control of Bizerte. Apart from offering support in various tasks or projects in African countries, Pakistan also helped some African countries during their fight for independence. Pakistan, for instance, supported Algeria during her independence struggle. Relationship between Pakistan and Egypt, Libya, and both Sudan and South Sudan is attributed to similarity in religion. Libya, however, shares similar culture with Pakistan. Pakistan has diplomatic relations and it maintains honorary consulate with various Sub-Saharan African countries. African countries with good relations with Pakistan include: Congo, Botswana, Kenya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Lesotho, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, and Somali among others (Lieven, 2012). Strengths of Pakistan Pakistan has been using its strengths for three main reasons; eradication of poverty, increasing overall gross domestic product of the country, and lowering inflation rate. As strength, location of Pakistan is an advantage to its economy. The country is located at the corridor of major maritime oil supply networks. That is, the country is a major oil producer in Asian countries. Through exploitation of the natural resource, Pakistan has significantly improved its economy. Advanced technology and accessibility to infrastructure is another strength point of the country. Apart from, having modern

Livia 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Livia 2 - Essay Example This is evident since they do not disclose earnings form deposits although they account for around a third of bank’s total revenues. Although these bank charges may seem little, they are quite substantial considering the thousands or even millions of deposits that banks receive periodically. Banks however defend they action to levy deposits. They argue that deposits cost money to handle. These costs arise as a result of time and encumbrance to teller as a result of counting cash and also cost of transferring these funds. They also pay some fee to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. for holding large cash amount. However, this may be more rational if they only charged deposits that are in millions. It seems quite absurd to reason out that a bank like chase bank needs 40 cents to handle every $1,000 deposited exceeding an initial deposit od 7500. According to the author, Banks should not charge levies for receiving cash. They are only seeking more profits. According to my view, banks should not charge for deposits at all. This is because deposits are part of their sources for economics surpluses. Without deposits, banks would not be enjoying benefits on credit creation (Strahan, P.E. & Weston, J.P. pg. 835). Credit creation is the process by which banks loan out credit given to an individual over and over again (Saunders, A. pg. 89). This is because borrowers do not always withdraw the entire loaned amount or redeposit it back to their accounts for safety measures. Banks take advantage of this idle cash balances and loan it again although they maintain a reserve ratio just in case a customer need this amount. When this is done repeatedly, banks make extra earnings depending on a factor known as a credit creation multiplier. A second reason why banks should not charge deposits is simply to encourage deposit inflows (Rhoades, A. pg. 280). Deposits are sources of fund that are directly loaned out even

Colonization in Pakistan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Colonization in Pakistan - Essay Example British colonizers got access to the country during the reign of Sikh rulers. However, in 1857, Sepoy Mutiny, an Indian Rebellion, initiated a struggle against the British colonizers. Also Indian National Congress spearheaded several non-violent freedom struggles in early 1900s against the British. Britain could not resist the opposing powers and it ended its rule in Pakistan in 1947. Modern state of the country was, therefore, established on August 14, 1947. The country was then partitioned into five provinces: East Bengal, Balochistan, West Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Sindh. The partitioning process, however, led to riots across Pakistan and India (Lieven, 2012). War in Pakistan Pakistan has had four major wars since independence. The first war was the Kashmir war in 1947. The war was triggered when the country gained control of Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. The war involved Pakistan and the neighboring India. The two countries were later involved in war in 1965 and in 1971. The latest war was the Kargil war, which occurred in 1999. Pakistan has also had several skirmishes with its northern border country, Afganistan. Famine in Pakistan Famine in Pakistan is attributed to unevenly distributed rainfall patterns. Famines in the country have caused various devastating effects. Apart from leaving large expanse land derelict, famine in the country also triggered bushfires in various locations. Dereliction processes have not only created food shortages, but have also resulted to death of humans and animals because of hunger. Famines in Pakistan are, therefore, considered as an economic crisis because many resources are spent in mitigating them. Relations with African Countries Pakistan has strong relationships with countries in both Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa. The relationships are evident in the Pakistan embassies in African countries. Also, business relationships between Pakistan and African countries exist. Religion is another area where Pakistan and Arab-related African countries intermingle. In Tunisia, Pakistan supported the country in taking full control of Bizerte. Apart from offering support in various tasks or projects in African countries, Pakistan also helped some African countries during their fight for independence. Pakistan, for instance, supported Algeria during her independence struggle. Relationship between Pakistan and Egypt, Libya, and both Sudan and South Sudan is attributed to similarity in religion. Libya, however, shares similar culture with Pakistan. Pakistan has diplomatic relations and it maintains honorary consulate with various Sub-Saharan African countries. African countries with good relations with Pakistan include: Congo, Botswana, Kenya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Lesotho, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, and Somali among others (Lieven, 2012). Strengths of Pakistan Pakistan has been using its strengths for three main reasons; eradication of poverty, increasing overall gross domestic product of the country, and lowering inflation rate. As strength, location of Pakistan is an advantage to its economy. The country is located at the corridor of major maritime oil supply networks. That is, the country is a major oil producer in Asian countries. Through exploitation of the natural resource, Pakistan has significantly improved its economy. Advanced technology and accessibility to infrastructure is another strength point of the country. Apart from, having modern

Macbeth - explain in an essay format how I would direct Act2, Scene1 Essay Example for Free

Macbeth explain in an essay format how I would direct Act2, Scene1 Essay I am now going to explain in an essay format how I would direct Act2, Scene1 and what I would change from how the play has been originally shown. If I was directing Act 2 Scene 1, I would want Macbeth to appear to the audience as if he is cracking under the pressure and for him to appear insane, unhappy and insecure. Macbeth acts different from when we first saw him with Banquo, as now he is about to commit a crime of treason and kill his beloved King. This is very different from when we first saw him as he loved his King and he would die for him but now it is in reverse. This is important that the audience understand he is very different and not the same person due to his greed for power. It is imperative that he is portrayed this way so the audience can see he is weaker and worse of especially as his wife, Lady Macbeth has been pressuring him in to completing his task of murdering King Duncan. If it was not for his wife then I do not think that Macbeth would have gone through with it. This change in Macbeths character will hopefully have an affect on the audience so they can see how the three witches and his wife have affected him and his state of mind. Macbeth is realizing that he is weaker than he thought and that he is making a mistake, he doesnt want to commit the murder but his wife pushes and pressures him into killing his King. This shows the audience that at this time Lady Macbeth is stronger than Macbeth and in a better state of mind. He starts to imagine things and this is a sign of him being insane, and mentally unstable. Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me Clutch thee. p. 43 This speech is important in the understanding of Macbeths role in this scene. So I would want Macbeth to be sitting at the end of a table and to say this in such a way that the audience can see him turning mentally insane. I would want him saying the sentence slowly and negatively, emphasising toward as if he is surprised about it, also holding a dagger infront of him looking at it up and down with eyes that look blurred feeling the blade. Also I would want a low-angled shot showing him overcastting the camera to give that extra touch of madness during the first line. Then I would also have a close up of him holding the dagger to get his face and dagger in the same camera shot for the last two lines. To add to the tension of this speech there would be music playing in the background that would be farley heavy to give the impression of evil and what is about to happen. This will make the audience grasp his character and understand what he is going through at this time in the play. After this speech I would have had Macbeth walking up the stairs with the dagger looking bedazzled and insane and then I would have him raise it above his head as he reached the top of the stairs. After he comes out of the room I would have him looking down at his hands ready to brake down and crumble at his knees. Once he reaches his room I would have him collapse onto the bed and lay there feeling guilty. Also when he looks at his hands I would have him start to shed tears to show that he is a wimp and insecure.

Evidence Between Offending And Social Class

Evidence Between Offending And Social Class This essay will outline and critically evaluate the main evidence supporting an association between offending, victimisation and social class, using criminological theories such as Strain Theory and Labelling theory to demonstrate this. Social class in relation to offending and victimisation is an extremely broad area, taking this and the words limit into account this essay will specifically focus on offending and Victimisation of the lower classes in society. Class was originally defined by Karl Marx in relation to the means of production where he described two main classes the bourgeoisie the owning class and the proletariat the workers who were exploited by capitalism (Giddens, 2001). His theory has been heavily scrutinised and class is now seen as more flexible than Marx first interoperated taking into account; income, wealth and status and in addition to this culture and patterns of consumption (Giddens, 2001). In contemporary society class is based on a complex model where defined by occupation however this leads to the victimisation of the lower classes and low income families especially in respect of stereotypes regarding criminality (Croall, 1998). The stereotype of the Dangerous class arose in Victorian times as a reaction to the crime rates. The lower classes were depicted by the middle and upper classes as idle and lazy, would rather live off the proceeds of crime than do a hard days labour (Elmsley, 1996). This stereotype lives on to present day with the common belief that the lower classes the underclass are the main offenders in relation to criminal behaviour (Croall, 1998). The underclass has been defined by Giddens (2001) as a group at the bottom of society, who suffers from severe inequalities in health, education and lives off the welfare system which results in difficulties conforming to the economic, social and political norms of society which are predominantly middle class. Murray ((1990) cited in Walklate (2003)) suggests that members of the underclass are not only defined by their behaviour and unemployment status but also their involvement in crime and their illegitimacy. Durkheims theory of anomie suggests that the lack of opportunity that the underclass has consequently resulting in criminality and deviance (Marsh, Melville, Morgan, Norris, Walkington, 2006). This theory of Anomie was taken further by Merton (1910-2003) who suggested that people from more deprived areas had less change of achieving social, economic and personal growth (Marsh et al, 2006). Their opportunity is obstructed by the area they live, poverty, literacy, cultural background and which puts a strain on their ability to achieve economic status and wealth (Marsh et al, 2006). This form of Anomie theorised by Merton is Called Strain Theory which accounts for the inability for people from deprived areas to achieve their goals of status and wealth by legal means (Newburn, 2007). This therefore suggests a reason for the shift to criminality and also gives reason for the high numbers of offenders from this class (Giddens, 2001). This can also be explained by the by David Gordon a political economist who believes crime in capitalist society represents perfectly rational responses to the structure of institutions upon which capitalist societies are based meaning that due to the strain in striving for greatness and wealth people from lower classes gain their wealth through unconventional means (Reiner, 2004). Offending occurs in all social classes however, the majority of convictions occur from the lower classes of society in involving crimes such as robbery, theft, burglary and joyriding. White collar crime on the other hand is generally seen by society as crime of the middle and upper classes this may be due to accessibility the middle/upper classes have to commit fraud or exploitation of health and safety laws and with a very low conviction rate this reflecting in the crime statistics (Croall, 1998). This gives an unfair representation of crime and victimises the lower classes in society (Croall, 1998). The majority of convicted offenders are to from lower class background committing crimes of robbery, theft, burglary and crimes against property (Muncie McLaughlin, 2001) The British Crime Survey (2008/09 [online]) suggests that fifty percent of crime recorded by the police was robbery, theft, burglary, and crimes against property compared with three percent of fraud and forgery. Marsh et al (2006) suggests that Merton and Cohen see crime as a reaction to inequality and there is a common cause for such behaviours such as social influence by family, friends, peers and social background (Newburn, 2007:486). This is reflected in the offences that these prisoners have been charges with such as theft and burglary (Muncie et al, 2001). Eighty percent of offenders are male under twenty one, in prison there is an overwhelming majority of these offenders from lower classes and ethnic minorities who have been raised in deprived areas of society (Muncie et al, 2001). These statistics reflect the willingness of the government to criminalise these offenders, disregarding the deprivation and inequality that has lead to their criminality (Muncie et al, 2001). Mertons Strain theory suggests that there is a strain on the ability to achieve wealth through conventional educational means, therefore there is a need to partake in criminality to gain this wealth and status and through the participation in crime there is an increased probability in the use of drugs (Muncie et al, 2001). This was studied further by Dunlap et al ((2002) cited in Newburn 2007:486) where he investigated the lives of four generations of women from low income backgrounds, who had been sexually assaulted, violent attacked and taken drugs over their life time learning these behaviours as social norms this consequently lead to the next generation having the same fate. Victimisation occurs across the whole of society however, according to Felson Boba (2010) it is predictable and is grouped together in areas especially those of deprivation. According to the Criminal Victimisation by Family Income Study (2000) the poorest families in America were subject to three times more crime than the richest (Reiman, 2004). There are specific groups in society who are more prone to victimisation the British Crime survey (2008/09 [online]) suggest that such as; young people especially males aged 16-24 have a thirteen percent chance of being a victim of crime; unemployed have a seven percent chance, single also have a seven percent chance, ethnic minorities have a seven percent chance and people who have already been a victim of crime are more likely to fall victim again (Maguire, Morgan Reiner, 2002). In addition to this the poor are more likely to be victims of unfair working conditions according to Tombs (1999) cited in Croall (2001:74)) Safety is related to vulnerability and these groups are elderly, poor and young, miss sale of financial products due to lack of education, the adverse affects of white collar crimes such as the dumping of harmful waste in third world countries (Croall, 2001). Howard Becker (Cited in Giddens, 2001) suggests that Labelling theory can account for the victimisation of specific subcultures Anthony Platt (1969 cited in Lilly, Cullen Ball, 2007) suggests that labelling theory is biased and is aimed at helping the poorer classes attain middle class values. Croall (1998) proposes that the police play a part in the victimisation of the lower classes as they are more likely to suspect someone from a lower class background of offending due to the area in which they reside. The theory of labelling as self-fulfilling prophecy suggests that victimisation can occur of the lower classes due to society labelling them as delinquent (Lilly et al, 2007). This can happen if they are seen to associate with someone who is criminal or dresses in a way that can be perceived as delinquent this subsequent labelling could enforce conformity however, it could also push the person from social norms into criminality (Lilly et al, 2007). In conclusion this essay has outlined offending in relation to Mertons Strain Theory suggesting that there is a strain on the lower classes to achieve wealth through conventional educational means, therefore there is a need to partake in criminality (Muncie et al, 2001). Felson Boba (2010) said crime is predictable and is grouped together in areas especially those of deprivation the British Crime survey (2008/09 [online]) suggest that such as; young people especially males aged 16-24; unemployed, single, ethnic minorities and people who have already been a victim of crime are more likely to fall victim again (Maguire, Morgan Reiner, 2002). The theory of labelling as self-fulfilling prophecy suggests that victimisation can occur in the lower classes due to society labelling them as delinquent, this subsequent labelling in some cases can enforce conformity, however, it can also push the person from social norms into criminality (Lilly et al, 2007). Society appears to criminalise thes e offenders, disregarding the deprivation and inequality which has lead to the offending in the first place this consequently leads to the victimisation and labelling of the lower classes (Muncie et al, 2001).

death penalty Essay -- essays research papers

James Felner, author of â€Å"Mentally Retarded Don’t Belong on Death Row,† states that, â€Å"A person is considered mentally retarded if he or she has a significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, which generally means recording an IQ score of lower than 70, and exhibiting deficits in adaptive behavior before the age of 18.† According to the American Association on Mental Retardation, it has three components: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  significantly sub-average intellectual function 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  accompanying impairments in the adaptive skills of the person 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  manifestation of the disability before the age of 18 How can Americans put someone on death row that is not fully responsible for his actions? Many argue that these people have committed horrible murders and are absolutely guilty of a capital crime; therefore they deserve the death penalty as the consequence of their crime. The people behind these arguments are wrong; it is a dreadful way to deal with people who do not understand the extent of their actions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several cases have proven that convicted felons of below average mental capacity are not competent enough to argue their case effectively. According to Felner, in the united states alone, there have been at least 33 mentally ill men executed since the United States reinstated the death penalty in 1976. Some experts estimate that as many as 10-15 percent of the 3,000 men and w...

Decision-Making Models Essay -- Decision Making

Decision-Making Models Negotiations and decisions are a part of everyday business. In order to make a successful decision, it is necessary to understand how to make rational and sound decisions. Decisions that are rash, made on snap judgments, and past experiences can prove detrimental to a business. A deficit in basic thinking and decision making is felt at all levels of an organization (Gary, 1997). Decisions can have long term and short term impacts on organizations and their world in which they exist (Turner & Dean, 2008). In order to understand the process of making a sound and good decision, it is necessary to define and understand several decision-making models. These models help to make clear the issues to be addressed and the goals that need to be obtained before a final decision is made. This paper will discuss the zero sum game, win-win, satisfying solutions, and the fixed pie models. Zero-sum game can play an important role wherein one entity wants or needs to dominate the other. Of the several decision-making models that can be implemented, the zero sum game is one decision model used in negotiations. In this instance, there is a winner and a loser. There is no give and take or compromise. The zero-sum can be seen in chess – only one player can win. However, in Monopoly, if it is not played with the intention of having one winner, but several players to place, is a non-zero-sum game, also known as a win-win (US department of state, n.d.). The second model is the non-zero, also known as the win-win model. This is used in compromises so that each of the â€Å"players† feels like a winner. The total amount gained is variable; therefore, both players win and lose objectives (Heylighen, 1993). In this model, eac... ...9712C, 15-18. Heylighen, F. (2000). Principia Cybernetica Web, in: Heylighen, F., Joslyn, C. and Turchin, V. (eds): Principia Cybernetica Web. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://pcp.lanl.gov/ZESUGAM.html Spangler, B. (2003). Distributive bargaining: Beyond Intractability. Guy Burgess & Heidi Burgess (eds.). Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Retrieved November 16, 2010, from http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/distributive_bargaining. Turner & Dean (2008). Testing the effects of prior performance on decision regret: Doubling-down, or all bets are off? Journal of Global Business Issues; 2, 1 13. U.S. Department of State (n.d.). Consulate General of the United States: Zero sum game between russia and the U.S. is gone with the cold war. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.vladivostok.usconsulate.gov/zerosum.html

Rethinking Anthropology – E. R. Leach

RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON SOCLL ANTHROPOLOGY Managing Editor: Anthony For^e The Monographs in on Social Anthropology were established modem The by 1940 and aim to publish results of anthropological research of primary interest to specialists. continuation of the series was made possible from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, and more recently by a further grant from the Governors of the London a grant in aid School of Economics and Political Science. re under the direction of an Board associated with the Department of Anthropology of the London School of Economics and Political Science. Editorial The Monographs LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY No. 22 Rethinking Anthropology by E. R. LEACH UNIVERSITY OF LONDON THE ATHLONE PRESS NEW YORK: HUMANITIES PRESS INC Published by THE ATHLONE PRESS UNIVERSITY OF LONDON at 2 Gotcer Street, Distributed by Tiptree London wci Book Services Ltd Tiptree, Essex F irst edition, 1961 First paperback edition with corrections, 1966 Reprinted, 1968, 1971 E. R. Leach, 1961, 1971 U. K. U. K. sB N o 485 19522 4 cloth sB N B o 485 19622 o paperback U. S. A. s N 391 00146 9 paperback First printed in 1961 by ROBERT CUNNINGHAM AND SONS LTD ALVA Reprinted by photo-litho by JOHN DICKENS & CO LTD NORTHAMPTON 4- M75†² Preface The title of this collection properly belongs only to the first essay. On 3 December 1959 1 had the honour to deliver the first Malinovvski Memorial Lecture at the London School of Economics. The Editorial Board of the London School of Economics Monographs in Social Anthropology enerously offered to publish the text of my lecture but added the flattering suggestion that I should reprint a number of my other essays at the same time. I have accordingly appropriated the title of my Malinowski lecture for the whole collection. I do not pretend wholly consistent with that The essays extend over a period of fifteen years and is that th e viewpoint of the latest (Chapter i) of the earliest (Chapter 2) but there is, I think, a certain continuity of theme and method in all of them. When they were first written all these essays were attempts to ‘rethink anthropology'.All are concerned with problems of others, I ‘theory' and are based on ethnographic facts recorded by my own contribution being primarily that of analyst. In each case have tried to reassess the known facts in the light of unorthodox assumpSuch heresy seems to me to have merit for its own sake. Unconventional arguments often turn out to be wrong but provided they provoke discussion they may still have lasting value. By that criterion each of the essays in this book is a possible candidate for attention. tions. Among social anthropologists the is game f building new theories on the ruins of old ones almost an occupational disease. Contemporary arguments in social anthropology are built out of formulae concocted by Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown an d Levi-Strauss who in turn were only ‘rethinking' Rivers, Durkheim and Mauss, who borrowed from Morgan, McLennan and Robertson- Smith the total outcome of all — and so on. Sceptics may think that despite all this ratiocination adds up to very little; our pedagogical subtleties, the diversities of human custom remain as bewildering as ever. But that we admit.The contemporary social anthropologist is all too well aware that he knows much less than Frazer imagined that he knew for certain. But that perhaps is the point. The contributions to anthropological pedantry collected in this book add little to the sum of human knowledge but if they provoke some readers to doubt their sense of certainty then they will have served their purpose. A note on the interconnections between the different papers draft of Chapter 2 may prove still helpful. The first was written in 1943 while I was on VI PREFACE and still in direct contact with Jinghpaw speakers. ppeared in the 1945 volume of the J. R. A. I, this was not actually published until 1950. These details of dating are relevant because they explain why my paper contains no reference to Chapters 15 and i6 of Levi-Strauss, Les structures elementaires de la parente (1949) and reciprocally why the latter work ignores the new information provided by my paper. Chapter 3, which was originally a Curl Prize Essay, was completed in the spring of 195 1 and seems to have been the first English language commentar)' on Levi-Strauss's magnum opus though, presumably, my paper and J.P. B. de Josselin de Jong's monograph Levi-Strauss's Theory on Kinship and Marriage (1952) were going through the press at the same time. Although I here criticized Levi-Strauss on the grounds of ethnographical inaccuracy my sympathy with his general theoretical point of view is very great. Professor Levi-Strauss has himself noted the similarity between the view of ‘social structure' implicit in my first Jinghpaw paper (Chapter 2) and his own (Levi-Strauss, 1953, p. 525 n), and in all my subsequent publications my debt to Levi-Strauss is obvious.The relationship of Chapter 4 to earlier literature will be apparent from the references in the text. Although it was not intended to be controversial it provoked Dr Kathleen Gough into a vigorous reply (Gough, 1959). The crucial part of my argument here is that I emphasize the need to distinguish between affinity regarded as an alliance between corporate kin groups and those individual affinal ties which bind a particular wife to a particular husband. This theme recurs in Chapter 5 and again in active military service t Although Chapter i. Chapter 5, as indicated in the text, is linked with a long correspondence which appeared in the pages of Man in 1953 and 1954 but the response which it evoked from my close academic colleagues is only marginally connected with this earlier discussion. Dr Goody has denounced my whole argument as grounded in fundamental error (Goody, 1959, p. 86 ) and Professor Fortes has taken up most of two issues of Man to expound my fallacies and confusions (Fortes, 1959b).Both these explosions of academic wrath were provoked by a single sentence in my essay, namely ‘Thus Fortes, while recognizing that ties of affinity have comparable importance to ties of descent, disguises the former under his expression â€Å"complementary filiation† (see below p. 122). The exact sense in which this statement is an ‘error' is still not clear to me for in the course of his denunciation Fortes reaffirms his view that ‘complementary filiation is a function of affinal relations' (Fortes, 1959b, p. 209) which is precisely the argument I sought to controvert. ^ Professor Fortes has called his article *a rejoinder to Leach', and — readers of Chapter i of this book need to appreciate that ‘a among other things in it is intended as rejoinder to Fortes'. Reference to a short note Man (i960. Art. 6) will perhaps help to mak e this clear. The two short papers on time symbolism reprinted in Chapter 6 do PREFACE influence of Professor Levi-Strauss Vll not form a series with the other chapters of the book though again the is pronounced. Although my ‘Cronus and Chronos' appeared in print in 1953 while Levi-Strauss's ‘The Structural Study of Myth' was only published in 1956, I had in fact already heard Professor Levi-Strauss's lecture on this topic before I wrote my essay.Explorations, the Toronto University publication in which my Chapter 6 was originally published, carried on its fly leaf the statement that it was ‘designed, not as a permanent reference journal that embalms truth for posterity, but as a publication that explores and searches and questions' and both my papers are correspondingly brief and tentative. Nevertheless a number of my friends have suggested that the arguments they contain are of more than ephemeral interest; hence the reissue here^ Chapter i contains a considerabl e amount of matter which was not included in the spoken text of my Malinowski lecture. The other essays^ appear as originally printed, except for the correction of misprints, and one or two very minor alterations intended to clarify the argument. The Introductory Notes at the beginning of Chapters 2-6 are new. Acknowledgements I am indebted to the Council of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland for permission to reprint the essays published here as Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 and to Professor E. S. Carpenter and the University of Toronto for permission to reprint the two short essays included in Chapter 6.I am indebted to a personal grant in aid from the Behavioral Sciences Division of the Ford Foundation for facilities employed while preparing } * j] : -^ these papers for publication. E. R. L. Contents 1. RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY I 2. JINGHPAW KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY THE STRUCTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF MATRILATERAL CROSS-COUSIN MARRIAGE 28 3. 54 4. POLYANDRY, INHERITAN CE AND THE DEFINITION OF marriage: with PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO SINHALESE CUSTOMARY LAW ASPECTS OF BRIDEWEALTH AND MARRIAGE STABILITY IO5 5. AMONG THE KACHIN AND LAKHER 6. II4 TWOESSAYS CONCERNING THE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF TIME (i) 124 Cronus and Chronos, 124 (ii) Time and False Noses, 132 Rethinking Anthropology my arrogant title. Since 1930 British Anthropology has embodied a well defined set of ideas and -^objectives which derive directly from the teaching of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown this unity of aim is summed up in the statement that British social anthropology is functionalist and concerned with the comparative analysis of social structures. But during the last year or so it has begun to look as if this particular aim had worked itself out.Most of my colleagues are giving up the attempt to make comparative generalizations instead they have begun to write impeccably detailed historical ethno- tET Social me begin by explaining — graphies of particular peoples. I regret this new tendency for I still believe that the findings of anthro- pologists have general as well as particular implications, but functionalist doctrine ceased to carry conviction? why has the understand what is happening in social anthropology I believe we need to go right back to the beginning and rethink basic issues really elementary matters such as To — hat we mean by marriage or descent or the unity of difficult siblings, and that is — for basic concepts are basic; The the ideas one has about them are deeply entrenched and firmly held. One bias of the things we need to recognize is the strength of the empirical which Malinowski introduced into social anthropology and which essential core of social anthropology has stayed with us ever since. is understanding of the way of life of a single particular people. This fieldwork is an extremely personal traumatic kind of experience and the personal involvement of the anthropologist in his work is reflected in wh at he produces.When we read Malinowski we get the impression that he is stating something which is of general importance. Yet how can this be? He is simply writing about Trobriand Islanders. Somehow he has so assimilated himself into the Trobriand situation that he is able to make the Trobriands fieldwork a microcosm of the whole primitive world. successors; for Firth, Primitive citizen of —the And the same is true of his is Man is a Tikopian, for Fortes, he a Ghana. The existence of this prejudice has long been recognized / but we have paid inadequate attention to its consequences.The difficulty of achieving comparative generalizations is directly linked with the problem of escaping from ethnocentric bias. 2 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY As is appropriate to an occasion I when we honour the memory of Bronislaw MaUnowski, am going to be thoroughly egotistical. I shall imply there my own is merit by condemning the work of in my closest friends. But purpose is to distinguish between two rather similar varieties of comparative generalization, both of which turn up from time to time in contemporary British social anthropology.One of these, which I dislike, derives from the work of Radcliffe-Brown; the other, which I admire, derives from the work of Levi-Strauss. It is important that the differences between these two approaches be properly understood, so I shall draw my illustrations in sharp contrast, all black and all white. In this harsh and exaggerated form Professor Levi-Strauss method my malice. My might well repudiate the authorship of the ideas which I am trying to convey. Hence my egotism; let the blame be wholly mine. My problem is simple.How can a modern social anthropologist, with all the work of Malinowski and Radcliffc-Brown and their successors at his elbow, embark upon generalization with any hope of arriving at a satisfying conclusion? My answer is quite simple too; it is this: By thinking of the organizational ideas that are present in any societ y as constituting a mathematical pattern. The rest of what I have to say that is simply an elaboration of this cryptic statement. concern is with generalization, not with maintained that the objective of social anthropology was the ‘comparison of social structures'.In explaining this he asserted that when we distinguish and compare different types of social structure we are doing the same kind of thing as when we distinguish different kinds of sea shell according to their structural type (RadcliffeBrown, 1953, p. 109). Generalization is quite a different kind of mental First let me emphasize my comparison. Radcliffe-Brown operation. Let me illustrate this point. two points can be joined by a straight line and you can represent this straight line mathematically by a sm^G. first order algebraic equation.Any three points can be joined by a circle and you can represent this circle by a quadratic or second order algebraic equation. It would be a generalization to go straight on fro m there and say any : Any n points in a plane can be joined by a curve which can be represented by an equation of order n-i. This would be just a guess, but it would be true, and it is a kind of truth which no amount of comparison can ever reveal. Comparison and generalization are both forms of scientific activity, but different. Comparison is a matter of butterfly collecting —of classification, of the rrangement of things according to their types and subtypes. The followers of Radcliffe-Brown are anthropological butterfly collectors and their approach to their data has certain consequences. For example, according to RadclifTe- Brown's principles we ought to think of Trobriand society : RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY as 3 classification a society of a particular structural type. The might proceed thus: Main Type Sub-type: Sub-sub-type : societies societies societies composed of unilineal descent groups. composed of matrilineal descent groups. composed of matrilineal descent groups i n which he married males of the matrilineage live together in one place and apart from the females of the matrilineage, and so on. In this procedure each class preceding it is a sub-type of the class immediately in the tabulation. its uses, but it has very serious has no logical limits. Ultimately discriminated in this way as a sub-type Now I every just agree that analysis of this kind has is limitations. One major defect known society can be that it from any other, and since anthropologists are notably vague about what they mean by ‘a society', this will lead them to distinguish more and more ocieties, almost ad infinitum. This is not just hypothesis. My colleague Dr Goody has gone to great pains to distinguish as types two adjacent societies in the Northern Gold Coast which he calls LoWiili and LoDagaba. A careful reader of Dr Goody's works will discover, however, that these two ‘societies' are distinct simply the way that field Dr Goody notes from two has chosen to de scribe the fact that his neighbouring communities show some curious discrepancies. If limit Dr Goody's methods of analysis were pushed to the we should be able to show that every village community throughout is he world constitutes a distinct society which distinguishable as a type from any other (Goody, 1956b). Another serious objection is that the typology makers never explain why they choose one frame of reference rather than another. RadcliffeBrovsTi's instructions were simply that ‘it is necessary to compare societies the economic system, the with reference to one particular aspect . . . political system, or the kinship system' . . . this is equivalent to saying that you can arrange your butterflies according to their colour, or their size, or the shape of their wings according to the him of the moment, but no matter what you do this will be science. Well perhaps, in a sense, it is; but you must realize that your prior arrangement creates an initial bias from which it is later extremely difficult to escape (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940, p. xii). Social anthropology is packed with frustrations of it this kind. An obvious Ever since example is the category opposition patrilineal/matrilineal. has been customary for anthropologists to distinguish unilineal from non-unilineal descent systems, and writing of the Iroquois, Morgan began among that it the former to distinguish patrilineal societies from atrilineal societies. is These categories now seem to us so rudimentary and obvious extremely difficult to break out of the straitjacket of thought which the categories themselves impose. 4 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY Yet if our approach is to be genuinely unbiased we must be prepared to consider the possibihty that these type categories have no sociological significance whatsoever. It may be that to create a class labelled matrtis as irrelevant for our understanding of social structure as the creation of a class blue butterflies is irrelevant for the understanding of t he anatomical structure of lepidoptera.I don't say it is so, but it may be; it is lineal societies time that we considered the possibility. J I warn you, the rethinking of basic category assumptions can be very disconcerting. But Let me cite a case. Dr Audrey Richards's well-known contribution to African Systems of Kinship and Marriage is an essay in Radcliffe-Brownian typology making which is rightly regarded as one of the ‘musts' of undergraduate reading (Richards, 1950). In this essay Dr Richards asserts that societies is ‘the problem' of matrilineal the difficulty of combining recognition of descent through the oman with the rule of exogamous marriage, and she classifies a variety of matrilineal societies according to the way this ‘problem' is solved. In effect her classification turns on the fact that a woman's husband the two men. jointly possess rights in the woman's brother and a woman's children but that matrilineal systems differ in the way these rights a re allocated between is the prior category assumptions. Men have kinds of society, so why should it be assumed from the start that brothers-in-law in matrilineal societies have special ‘prob- What I object to in this ll brothers-in-law in lems' which are absent in patrilineal or bilateral structures? really What has lay a matrilineal society, she has decided to restrict her comparative obser-ations to matrilineal systems. Then, having selected a group of societies which have nothing in common except that they are matrilineal, she is naturally led to conclude that matrilineal descent is the major factor to which all the other items of cultural behaviour which she happened here with the Bemba, is that, because Dr Richards's own special knowledge describes are functionally adjusted.Her argument I am afraid is a tautology; her system of classification already implies the truth of what she claims to be demonstrating. This illustrates how Radcliffe-Brown's taxonomic assumptions fit in with the ethnocentric bias which I mentioned earlier. Because the typefinding social anthropologist conducts his whole argument in terms of tempted particular instances rather than of generalized patterns, he is constantly to attach exaggerated significance to those features of social organization which happen to be prominent in the societies of which he himself has first hand experience. The ase of Professor Fortes illustrates this is same point in rather a different way. His quest not so much for types as for prototypes. It so happens that the two societies of which he has made a close study have certain similarities of structural pattern for, while the Tallensi are patri- RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY lineal 5 and the Ashanti matrilineal, both Tallensi and Ashanti come unfiliation', usually close to having a system of double unilineal descent. Professor Fortes has devised a special concept, ‘complementary w^hich helps him to describe this double unilineal element in the Tallen si/Ashanti pattern w^hile rejecting the notion that these societies actually possess double unilineal systems (Fortes, 1953, p. 33; 1959b). It is interesting to note the circumstances which led to the development of this concept. From one point of view ‘complementary filiation' is simply an inverse form of Malinowski's notion of ‘sociological paternity' as applied in the matrilineal context of Trobriand society. But Fortes has done more than invent a new name for an old idea; he has made it the corner stone of a substantial body of theory and this theory arises logically special circumstances of his own field experience.In his earlier writings the Tallensi are often represented as having a somewhat extreme form of patrilineal ideology. Later, in contrast to from the Rattray, Fortes placed an unambiguously matrilineal label upon the Ashanti. view, is The that merit of ‘complementary it is filiation', from Fortes's point of a concept which applies equally well to bot h of these contrasted societies but does not conflict with his thesis that both the Tallensi and the Ashanti have systems of unilineal descent. The concept ecame necessary to him precisely because he had decided at the start that the more familiar and more obvious notion of double unilineal descent was inappropriate. In retrospect Fortes seems to have decided that double unilineal descent is a special development of ‘complementary filiation', the latter being a feature of all unilineal descent structures. That such category distinctions are contrived rather than natural is evident from Goody's additional discrimination. Goody asserts that the LoWiili have ‘complementary descent rather than a dual descent system'.Since the concept of ‘complementary filiation' was first introduced so as to help in the distinction between ‘filiation' and ‘descent' and since the adjective ‘complementary' cannot here be given meaning except by reference to the word â⠂¬Ëœdescent', the total argument is clearly tautologous (Fortes, 1945, pp. 134, 20of; 1950, p. 287; 1953, p. 34; 1959; Goody, 1956b, p. 77). Now I do not claim that Professor Fortes is mistaken, but I think he is misled by his prior suppositions. If making and from enthnocentric science. we are to bias we must let escape both from typology turn to a different kind ofInstead of comparison repeat. Generalization us have generalization; instead of inductive; it butterfly collecting let us have inspired guesswork. Let me is consists in perceiving it is possible general laws in the circumstances of special cases; guesswork, a gamble, you may be wrong or you may be right, but if you happen to be right you have learnt something altogether new. In contrast, arranging butterflies according to their types and sub-types is tautology. It merely reasserts something you know already in a slightly different form. 6 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY But if you are going is o start guessing, you need I to kno w how to guess. . d this wliat I am getting at when say that the form of thinking should be mathematical. Functional ism in a mathematical sense is not concerned with the interconnections between parts of a whole but with the principles of operation of partial systems. There is a direct conflict here with the dogmas of Malinowski and Malinowski's functionalism required us to think of each Society (or Culture, as Malinowski would have put it) as a totality Radcliffe-Brown. of a made up kinds — number of discrete empirical ‘things', of rather diverse institutions', e. g. groups of people, customs. These ‘things' are functionally interconnected to form a delicately balanced mechanism rather like the various parts of a wrist watch. cliff†e- The functionalism of Rad- Brown was equally mechanical though the focus of interest was different. RadclifTe-Brown was concerned, as it were, to distinguish wrist watches clocks, whereas Malinowski was interested in the gener al attributes of clockwork. But hath masters took as their starting point the notion that a culture or a society is an empirical whole made up rom grandfather of a limited two societies number of readily identifiable parts and that when we compare we are concerned to see whether or not the same kinds of is parts are present in both cases. This approach a mechanic but appropriate for a zoologist or for a botanist or for it is not the approach of a mathematician nor of an engineer and, in gineer. my view, the anthropologist has much in common with the en- But that is my private bias. I was originally trained as an engineer. The entities which we call societies are not naturally existing species, neither re they man-made mechanisms. But the analogy of a mechanism has quite as much relevance as the analogy of an organism. This is not the place to discuss the history of the organic analogy as a model for Society, but its arbitrariness is often forgotten. Hobbes, who developed his notion of a social organism in a very systematic way, discusses in his preface whether a mechanical or an organic analogy might be the more appropriate for his purpose. He opts for an organism only because he wants to include in his model a metaphysical prime mover (i. . God Life Force) (Hobbes, 1957, p. 5). In contrast RadcHffe-Brown employed the organic analogy as a matter of dogma rather than of choice (e. g. Radcliffe-Brown, 1957, pp. 82-86; 1940a, pp. 3, lo) and his butterfly collecting followers have accepted the appropriateness of the phrase ‘social organism' without serious discussion. Against this complacency I — must protest. It is certainly the case that social scientists must often resort all to analogy but eternity. we are not committed to one type of model making for Our task societies s to understand and explain what goes on in society, how work. If an engineer tries to explain to you how a digital computer RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY bolts. 7 works he doesn't spend his time classifying different kinds of nuts and He concerns himself with principles, not with things. He writes out argument as a mathematical equation of the utmost simplicity, somewhat on the lines of o + i = i i + i = 10. No doubt this example is frivolous; such computers embody their information in a code which is transmitted in positive and negative impulses denoted by the digital symbols o and i.The essential point is that although the information which can be embodied in such codes may be enormously complex, the basic principles on which the computing machines work is very simple. Likewise I would maintain that quite simple mechanical models can have relevance for social anthropology despite the acknowledged fact that the detailed empirical facts of social life display the utmost complexity. I don't want to turn anthropology into a branch of mathematics but I believe we can learn a lot by starting to think about society in a mathehis : ; matical way.Considered mathematicall y society is not an assemblage of things but an assemblage of variables. A good analogy would be with that branch of mathematics known as topology, which may crudely be described as the geometry of elastic rubber sheeting. If I have a piece of rubber sheet and draw a series of lines on it to symbolize the functional interconnections of some set of social phenomena and I then start stretching the rubber about, I can change the manifest shape of my original geometrical figure out of all recognition and yet clearly there is a sense in which it is the same figure all the time.The constancy of pattern is not manifest as an objective empirical fact but it is there as a mathematical generalization. By analogy, generalized structural patterns in anthropology are not restricted to societies of any one manifest structural type. you will tell me that topology is one of those which mere sociologists had best avoid, but I am not in fact proposing anything original. A very good simple account of the nature of topology appears in an article under that title in the current edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.The author himself makes the point that because topology is a non-metrical form of mathematics it deserves especial attention from social scientists. I Now know that a lot of alarming scientific mysteries The fundamental Any closed curve is arc of a circle is ‘the variable in topology ‘the is the degree of connectedness. same as' any other regardless of its shape; the same as' a straight line because each is open ended. Contrariwise, a closed curve has a greater degree of connectedness than an arc. If of pattern case if we apply these ideas to sociology particular relationships e cease to be interested in and concern ourselves instead with the regularities relationships. is among neighbouring In the simplest possible there be a relationship p which intimately associated with another relationship q then in a topological study we shall not concern ourselves 8 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY with the particular characteristics of/) and q but with their mutual characteristics, i. e. with the algebraic ratio p'^q. But it must be understood that the relationships and sets of relationships which are symbolized in this way cannot properly be given specific numerical values.The reader should bear this point in mind when he encounters the specimens of pseudo-mathematics which occur later in this paper. All propositions in topology can also be expressed as propositions in symbolic logic (see Carnap, 1958, chapter G) and it was probably a consideration of this fact which led Nadel to introduce symbolic logic into own view is that while the consideration book (Xadel, 1957). of mathematical and logical models may help the anthropologist to order his last My his theoretical arguments in an all this intelligent way, his actual procedure s should be non-mathematical. The pattern relevance of to my main theme that the saTne structural may turn up in any kind of society patrilineal —a mathematical approach matrilineal makes no prior assumption that from non-unilineal systems or structures. all unilincal systems are basically different structures from the contrary, the principle of parity leads us to discount rigid category distinctions of this kind. On Let me try to illustrate I for the occasion shall take my point with an example. To be my example from Malinowski. Malinowski reported, as a ppropriate Most of you will know that fact of empirical ethnography, that the Trobrianders profess ignorance of the connection between copulation and pregnancy and that this ignorance serves as a rational justification for their system of matrilineal descent. From the Trobriand point of view ‘my father' (tama) is not a blood relative at all but a kind of affine, *my mother's husband' (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 5). However, alongside their dogmatic ignorance of the facts of life, Trobrianders also maintain that every child should resemble its mother's husband (i. . its father) but that no child could ever resemble a member of its own matrilineal kin. Malinowski seems to have thought it paradoxical that Trobrianders should hold both these doctrines at the same time. He was apparently bemused by the same kind of ethnocentric assumptions as later led a Tallensi informant to tell Professor Fortes that ‘both parents transmit their blood to their offspring, as can be seen from the fact that Tallensi children may resemble either parent in looks' (Fortes, 1949, p. 35; my italics). This is mixing up sociology and genetics.We know, and apparently the Tallensi assume, that physical appearance is genetically based, but there is no reason why primitive people in general should associate ideas of genetic inheritance with ideas about physical resemblance between persons. The explanation which the Trobrianders gave to Malinowski was that a father impresses his appearance on his son by cohabiting repeatedly with the mother and ther eby ‘moulding' (kuli) the child in her womb (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 176) which is reminiscent of the Ashanti . RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY view that the father shapes the body of his child as might a potter (Rattray, 1929, p. 9). This Trobriand theory is quite consistent with the view that the father is related to the son only as mother's husband that is, an affine and not as a kinsman. There are other Trobriand doctrines which fall into line with this. The father's sister is ‘the prototype of the lawful woman' (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 450) which seems to be more or less the equivalent of saying that — the father (tama) is much the same sort of relation as a brother-in-law.Again, although, as Powell has shown (Powell, 1956, p. 314), marriage with the father's sister's daughter is rare, the Trobrianders constantly assured Malinowski that this was a very right and proper marriage. Evidently in their view the category tama (which includes both father and father's sister's s on) is very close to that of lubou (brother-in-law) (Mal- inowski, 1932a, pp. 86, 451). The similarity is asserted not only in verbal expression but also in the pattern of economic obligation, for the harvest gift (urignbu) paid by a married man is due both to his mother's husband tama) and to his sister's husband (lubou) (Malinowski, 1935, I, pp. 386, 413-18). From my point of view this cluster of Trobriand beliefs and attitudes is a ‘pattern of organizational ideas'— it specifies a series of categories, in a particular relationship and places them with one another as in an was biased by his down to earth empiricism, by European prejudices and by his interest in psycho-analysis, and he refused to accept tlie Trobriand doctrine at its face value. Instead he refurbished his concept of ‘sociological paternity' which he had originalgebraic equation.But Malinowski ally devised to fit a quite different context, that of patrilineal organization among On to the Australia n Aborigines (Malinowski, 19 13, p. 170-83). this earlier occasion Malinowski had used ‘sociological paternity' relations show how between parents and children and between spouses derive from customary rules and not from any universal facts of biology or psychology, but in the later application of these ideas to Trobriand circumstances he shifts his ground and the argument becomes confused by the introduction of naive psychological considerations. On the face of t ‘sociological paternity', as used in The Sexual Life of attitudes Savages, seems to mean that even in a society which, like the Trobriands, sociological still denies the facts of ‘biological paternity', pertain to paternity, as zve understand it, which far, may be found. So so good. But Malinowski goes further than this. Instead of arguing, as in the Australian case, that kinship attitudes have a purely social origin, he now insists that social attitudes to kinship arc facts. rooted in universal psycholog ical The paternal relationship contains elements which are necessarily resent in the father/child relationship of all societies, no matter what the circumstances of custom and social structure confusing. may be. This is all very On the one hand the reader is is told quite plainly that the Trobriand child taught to think of his father as a non-relative, as an lO RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY individual with the special non-kinship status of mother's husband. But on the other hand the reader is forced to conclude that this ‘IVobriand mother's husband is related to the mother's child ‘as a sociological father', that is to say by ties of kinship as well as by tics of affinity.The argument, as a whole, is self-contradictory. is You may about. well think that this a yery hairsplitting point to make a fuss How can it possibly make any difference whether I think of a parti- cular male as my father or as is my mother's husband? Well, all I can say that anthropologists do Professor Fort es, Dr Goody and Dr Kathleen Gough on this subject that worry about such things. are so disturbed by my heretical yiews oflF time to try to bruise my owski's argument (Fortes, 1959)-